Annie Sawyer, Ph. D.
Adolescence is one of the most dramatic and challenging periods in one’s life span. It represents the stage of rapid growth and gradual transition (biological, cognitive, psychological and behavioral) from a childhood to adulthood. In general that is a period, during which a growth spurt proceeds in distal-proximal direction, weight increases, hormones are secreted and puberty starts, primary and secondary sexual characteristics appear, and fertility is achieved, many mental and psychological changes start to take place. That is the stage of growth and development that occurs from age 11 to 21- a period which is marked by profound changes that take place before the child reaches adulthood.
One of the developmental huge crisis of late adolescence, common with the senile ages is the dilemma to separate “selfishness” versus “self-fullness”, intimacy versus isolation, and to learn to care for ourselves as much as we care for others. Carol Gilligan postulates that “when we are self-full, true to our perceptions, needs and opinions, we do not have to worry about being selfish. With the risk to disappoint others in their expectations, we must see beyond the obsessive need to please people constantly, allowing others to find their proper strengths. She asserts that we have to hear our inner voice, and to always remember that where true self-fullness is lacking, selfishness, instead of love and charity, appears.
During this stage of development, children complete puberty (sexual maturation) and reach their physical growth. In general an adolescent’s weight doubles and height increases by 20 percent by the time they reach adulthood. Children start developing important social, emotional and cognitive (intellectual) skills, and strive toward welfare, independence and complete autonomy. That is the stage when they become and feel mature, capable, and enough smart to take private decisions in order to build their independency. Generally girls are experiencing characteristic of the onset of puberty two/ three years before boys.
Stages and aspects of the adolescent years: Adolescence is a time frame for carrying out crucial developmental tasks: becoming physically and sexually mature; acquiring skills needed to carry out adult roles; gaining increased autonomy from parents; and realigning social ties with members of both the same and the opposite gender representatives. The second decade of life is a time of dramatic change: and a period of rapid physical growth, endocrine (hormone) changes, cognitive development and increasing analytic capability, and of primary and secondary sex characteristics appearance. That is also a period of a significant emotional growth, a time of self-exploration and increased independence with active participation in social commitment.
There are three stages: early (age 11 to 13), middle (age 14 to 18) and late period (age 19 to 21) of adolescent growth. Each one of them is marked by distinct characteristics of growth and development, while the exact time frame for physical growth and sexual maturation may also vary among adolescents. The normal range of onset is ages 8 to 14 in females and ages 9 to 15 in males, with female onset of puberty two/ three years before boys.
There is also an early or delayed onset of puberty that is observed in both sexes (males and females). Generally, boys who mature early are fare better than late bloomers. Because they are taller and more muscular than their age-mates, they may be more confident, more popular, and more successful both in the classroom and on the playing field. In contrast, late-maturing boys have a poorer self-image, poorer school performance, and lower educational aspirations and expectations (Dorn et al., 1988; Litt, 1995). Early onset shows quick physical changes what the girls feels as a privilege. By the early 20s they are more equilibrated, than the girls with late onset. Delay puberty is when in girls, no breast development is observed by 13 years, or no menarche by 3 years after breast development (or by 16) and in boys, no testicular enlargement by 14 years.
Factors: Although predictable, the sequence and the timing of the pubertal changes are extremely variable. Environment, gender and heredity makeup, nutrition, stress, stress and family relationships, the amount of exercise and physical activity as well as the appearance of various diseases can affect the rate and the timing at which adolescents develop and reach their puberty. Family, and environmental factors are the stronger and maybe the most important factors for adolescent growth. We have also to consider the cultural- traditional, social class and standard of living, the climate and the geographic area differences too. Other factors despite secondary are not less important as for example: peer groups, neighborhood, school and workplace, and the broader socioeconomic relationships that have all been shown to influence adolescent developmental outcomes, although it is less clear if these factors influence pubertal development.
Timing: Adolescence does not have a distinct onset and offset, and there is significant variation among individuals in the timing of puberty. For example in the United States, the onset of puberty occurs earlier than in previous years. Over the last 150 years, girls' sexual maturation, measured by the age of the first menarche, is occurring at younger ages- by at least two to three years. In the nineteenth century, the average age at which girls reached menarche was approximately 15y old. Improved diets and more effective public health preventive measures are the reasons for the early onset.
One of the developmental huge crisis of late adolescence, common with the senile ages is the dilemma to separate “selfishness” versus “self-fullness”, intimacy versus isolation, and to learn to care for ourselves as much as we care for others. Carol Gilligan postulates that “when we are self-full, true to our perceptions, needs and opinions, we do not have to worry about being selfish. With the risk to disappoint others in their expectations, we must see beyond the obsessive need to please people constantly, allowing others to find their proper strengths. She asserts that we have to hear our inner voice, and to always remember that where true self-fullness is lacking, selfishness, instead of love and charity, appears.
During this stage of development, children complete puberty (sexual maturation) and reach their physical growth. In general an adolescent’s weight doubles and height increases by 20 percent by the time they reach adulthood. Children start developing important social, emotional and cognitive (intellectual) skills, and strive toward welfare, independence and complete autonomy. That is the stage when they become and feel mature, capable, and enough smart to take private decisions in order to build their independency. Generally girls are experiencing characteristic of the onset of puberty two/ three years before boys.
Stages and aspects of the adolescent years: Adolescence is a time frame for carrying out crucial developmental tasks: becoming physically and sexually mature; acquiring skills needed to carry out adult roles; gaining increased autonomy from parents; and realigning social ties with members of both the same and the opposite gender representatives. The second decade of life is a time of dramatic change: and a period of rapid physical growth, endocrine (hormone) changes, cognitive development and increasing analytic capability, and of primary and secondary sex characteristics appearance. That is also a period of a significant emotional growth, a time of self-exploration and increased independence with active participation in social commitment.
There are three stages: early (age 11 to 13), middle (age 14 to 18) and late period (age 19 to 21) of adolescent growth. Each one of them is marked by distinct characteristics of growth and development, while the exact time frame for physical growth and sexual maturation may also vary among adolescents. The normal range of onset is ages 8 to 14 in females and ages 9 to 15 in males, with female onset of puberty two/ three years before boys.
There is also an early or delayed onset of puberty that is observed in both sexes (males and females). Generally, boys who mature early are fare better than late bloomers. Because they are taller and more muscular than their age-mates, they may be more confident, more popular, and more successful both in the classroom and on the playing field. In contrast, late-maturing boys have a poorer self-image, poorer school performance, and lower educational aspirations and expectations (Dorn et al., 1988; Litt, 1995). Early onset shows quick physical changes what the girls feels as a privilege. By the early 20s they are more equilibrated, than the girls with late onset. Delay puberty is when in girls, no breast development is observed by 13 years, or no menarche by 3 years after breast development (or by 16) and in boys, no testicular enlargement by 14 years.
Factors: Although predictable, the sequence and the timing of the pubertal changes are extremely variable. Environment, gender and heredity makeup, nutrition, stress, stress and family relationships, the amount of exercise and physical activity as well as the appearance of various diseases can affect the rate and the timing at which adolescents develop and reach their puberty. Family, and environmental factors are the stronger and maybe the most important factors for adolescent growth. We have also to consider the cultural- traditional, social class and standard of living, the climate and the geographic area differences too. Other factors despite secondary are not less important as for example: peer groups, neighborhood, school and workplace, and the broader socioeconomic relationships that have all been shown to influence adolescent developmental outcomes, although it is less clear if these factors influence pubertal development.
Timing: Adolescence does not have a distinct onset and offset, and there is significant variation among individuals in the timing of puberty. For example in the United States, the onset of puberty occurs earlier than in previous years. Over the last 150 years, girls' sexual maturation, measured by the age of the first menarche, is occurring at younger ages- by at least two to three years. In the nineteenth century, the average age at which girls reached menarche was approximately 15y old. Improved diets and more effective public health preventive measures are the reasons for the early onset.
Of course there is variation in both the onset and the tempo of puberty. It can affect their physical development with the tendency they to be shorter and heavier, their behavior is with higher rates of conduct disorders, while their emotional development with higher rates of depression, eating disorders, suicide and low self-esteem. The youngest, most mature children are those at greatest risk for delinquency. Early-maturing boys also appear to have higher rates of delinquency (Graber et al., 1997; Rutter & Smith, 1995).
A review of the literature shows that researchers observe different effects of stress at different stages of puberty (Susman et al., 1989). Her conclusions are that stress does not trigger puberty, but it does modulate the timing of puberty. She also shows that different effects of stress can reflect on different stages of puberty, for example, stress appears to delay maturation for young adolescents but to precipitate puberty for older adolescents. According to her, it makes sense that stress would delay maturation because stress hormones tend to suppress reproductive hormones.
Mechanism of regulation: Puberty is a result of the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal- adrenal axis that culminates in maturation, which in turn interacts with the social environment. According to late researchers the brain growth continues during the adolescence, with the proliferation of glial cells, which nourish the neurons, and the process of myelination precedes what permits faster processing of the neuronal impulses. These changes in the brain are likely to stimulate cognitive growth and development, including the abstract way of thinking and analytical skills in youngsters. Wrongly enough scientists of the last century thought that changes associated with adolescence were almost entirely dictated by biological influences. Now, over the last two decades, when the knowledge has expended significantly, scientists know well that parents, service providers, and social institutions can promote healthy development and intervene effectively when problems arise.
Hormones and their effect on adolescence: From endocrine perspective of view, the reproductive maturation is a byproduct of hormonal changes occurring during this period of development, after the stimulation from the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Although the neuroanatomical and biology mechanisms of that age are generally well postulated, the modern theories are that the onset of puberty is a result of interactions between hormonal levels and social connections- the so called biosocial model. Researchers suggest that gonad hormones (gonadotropins) and adrenal hormones influence adolescent behavior, being affected by social interactions, and they may also play an important role in regulating the above onset (i.e. Shirtcliff). According to her adolescent behavior is influenced by complex interactions between the biological and social connections.
Challenges and dangers: One of the important insights into adolescence in the past decade is the profound influence of settings on adolescents' behavior and development. Until recently, research conducted to understand adolescent behavior, particularly risk-related behaviors, focused on the individual characteristics of teenagers and their families. In 1993, the NRC conducted a study that took a critical look at how families, communities, and other institutions are serving the needs of youth in the United States. This study concluded that adolescents depend not only on their families, but also on the neighborhoods in which they live, the schools that they attend the health care system, and the workplace from which they learn a wide range of important skills. If sufficiently enriched, all of these settings and social institutions in concert can help teenagers successfully make the transition from childhood to adulthood.
Family income is perhaps the single most important factor in determining the settings in which adolescents spend their lives.
Housing, neighborhoods, schools, and social opportunities that are linked to them are largely controlled by income; a family's income and employment status decide its access to health care services and strongly influence the quality of those services (National Research Council, 1993).
Opportunities for advanced education and training and entry into the workforce are also closely linked to family income. Moreover, income is a powerful influence in shaping what is arguably the most important setting, the family. At this point in time, the evidence is clear--persistent poverty exacts a significant price on adolescents' health, development, educational attainment, and socioeconomic potential, even though the causal relationships are not well understood in all cases.
Emotional/Social Changes: "raging hormones" continue to be a popular explanation for the aggression, and sexual activity associated with adolescence (Litt, 1995). Intense conflict between adolescents and their parents is often considered an unavoidable consequence of adolescence (Petersen, 1988). However, this assumption is not supported by scientific evidence.
Mental/Cognitive Changes: Studies show that, in contrast to children and adults, the most common causes of mortality among adolescents are associated with social, environmental, and behavioral factors rather than genetic, congenital, or biological diseases. Diseases observed in adolescent age are: ADD, BDD, depression, suicidal thoughts etc
Drugs, tobacco and alcohol abuse: Indeed, many of today's adolescents are using alcohol and other drugs, engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse, and are both victims and perpetrators of violence, which puts them at increased risk for a wide range of developmental and health-related problems, including morbidity and mortality. It is important to note that the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among adolescents are entirely preventable. Although relatively small, a significant number of adolescents also experience morbidity and mortality associated with genetic and congenital disorders (such as cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, and cerebral palsy), cancer, and infectious diseases that affect their development, behavior, and well-being.
A review of the literature shows that researchers observe different effects of stress at different stages of puberty (Susman et al., 1989). Her conclusions are that stress does not trigger puberty, but it does modulate the timing of puberty. She also shows that different effects of stress can reflect on different stages of puberty, for example, stress appears to delay maturation for young adolescents but to precipitate puberty for older adolescents. According to her, it makes sense that stress would delay maturation because stress hormones tend to suppress reproductive hormones.
Mechanism of regulation: Puberty is a result of the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal- adrenal axis that culminates in maturation, which in turn interacts with the social environment. According to late researchers the brain growth continues during the adolescence, with the proliferation of glial cells, which nourish the neurons, and the process of myelination precedes what permits faster processing of the neuronal impulses. These changes in the brain are likely to stimulate cognitive growth and development, including the abstract way of thinking and analytical skills in youngsters. Wrongly enough scientists of the last century thought that changes associated with adolescence were almost entirely dictated by biological influences. Now, over the last two decades, when the knowledge has expended significantly, scientists know well that parents, service providers, and social institutions can promote healthy development and intervene effectively when problems arise.
Hormones and their effect on adolescence: From endocrine perspective of view, the reproductive maturation is a byproduct of hormonal changes occurring during this period of development, after the stimulation from the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Although the neuroanatomical and biology mechanisms of that age are generally well postulated, the modern theories are that the onset of puberty is a result of interactions between hormonal levels and social connections- the so called biosocial model. Researchers suggest that gonad hormones (gonadotropins) and adrenal hormones influence adolescent behavior, being affected by social interactions, and they may also play an important role in regulating the above onset (i.e. Shirtcliff). According to her adolescent behavior is influenced by complex interactions between the biological and social connections.
Challenges and dangers: One of the important insights into adolescence in the past decade is the profound influence of settings on adolescents' behavior and development. Until recently, research conducted to understand adolescent behavior, particularly risk-related behaviors, focused on the individual characteristics of teenagers and their families. In 1993, the NRC conducted a study that took a critical look at how families, communities, and other institutions are serving the needs of youth in the United States. This study concluded that adolescents depend not only on their families, but also on the neighborhoods in which they live, the schools that they attend the health care system, and the workplace from which they learn a wide range of important skills. If sufficiently enriched, all of these settings and social institutions in concert can help teenagers successfully make the transition from childhood to adulthood.
Family income is perhaps the single most important factor in determining the settings in which adolescents spend their lives.
Housing, neighborhoods, schools, and social opportunities that are linked to them are largely controlled by income; a family's income and employment status decide its access to health care services and strongly influence the quality of those services (National Research Council, 1993).
Opportunities for advanced education and training and entry into the workforce are also closely linked to family income. Moreover, income is a powerful influence in shaping what is arguably the most important setting, the family. At this point in time, the evidence is clear--persistent poverty exacts a significant price on adolescents' health, development, educational attainment, and socioeconomic potential, even though the causal relationships are not well understood in all cases.
Emotional/Social Changes: "raging hormones" continue to be a popular explanation for the aggression, and sexual activity associated with adolescence (Litt, 1995). Intense conflict between adolescents and their parents is often considered an unavoidable consequence of adolescence (Petersen, 1988). However, this assumption is not supported by scientific evidence.
Mental/Cognitive Changes: Studies show that, in contrast to children and adults, the most common causes of mortality among adolescents are associated with social, environmental, and behavioral factors rather than genetic, congenital, or biological diseases. Diseases observed in adolescent age are: ADD, BDD, depression, suicidal thoughts etc
Drugs, tobacco and alcohol abuse: Indeed, many of today's adolescents are using alcohol and other drugs, engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse, and are both victims and perpetrators of violence, which puts them at increased risk for a wide range of developmental and health-related problems, including morbidity and mortality. It is important to note that the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among adolescents are entirely preventable. Although relatively small, a significant number of adolescents also experience morbidity and mortality associated with genetic and congenital disorders (such as cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, and cerebral palsy), cancer, and infectious diseases that affect their development, behavior, and well-being.
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These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. The material in this newsletter is provided for informational purposes only. Thus our intentions are not to diagnose, cure, mitigate, treat or prevent any disease. If you use the information in this newsletter without the approval of your health professional, the authors of this letter do not assume any responsibility. Copyright @ 2009, Natural Health-Wellness LLC. All rights reserved.
These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. The material in this newsletter is provided for informational purposes only. Thus our intentions are not to diagnose, cure, mitigate, treat or prevent any disease. If you use the information in this newsletter without the approval of your health professional, the authors of this letter do not assume any responsibility. Copyright @ 2009, Natural Health-Wellness LLC. All rights reserved.
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